Magnetic Tape Recording: The Wire, the Ribbon, and the Revolution

In August 1935, visitors to the Berlin Radio Show heard a recorded orchestra that sounded indistinguishable from a live performance. They assumed they were hearing a live broadcast. What they were actually hearing was a machine playing back a strip of iron-coated plastic tape — the AEG Magnetophon K1, the world's first practical magnetic tape recorder. The technology was so far ahead of everything available in the rest of the world that American engineers who encountered captured German machines after World War II assumed they must be a different kind of live radio relay. The German engineers had simply solved a problem their counterparts did not yet know how to approach.

The Physical Principle: What Magnetism Does to Sound

Before the history, the mechanism: how does magnetism store sound?

Sound is a pressure wave — alternating compressions and rarefactions in air that cause a microphone diaphragm to vibrate. That vibration generates an alternating electrical current whose amplitude and frequency correspond to the amplitude and frequency of the sound. In magnetic recording, this alternating current is used to vary the strength of a magnetic field at a recording head, which is a small electromagnet positioned close to a moving magnetic medium.

Recording head — a small electromagnet consisting of a coil of wire wound around a ferromagnetic core, with a tiny gap in the core. When current flows through the coil, it generates a magnetic field that concentrates at the gap. If a magnetic recording medium passes across this gap at a controlled speed, the field magnetizes small regions of the medium in patterns corresponding to the current variations — which correspond to the sound.

Magnetic medium — a material that can be permanently magnetized by an external field and retain that magnetization after the field is removed. In recording applications, the medium contains fine particles of ferromagnetic material (originally iron oxide, later chromium dioxide, cobalt-doped iron oxide, and others) suspended in a binder and coated onto a substrate (originally paper, then acetate, then polyester). The magnetic particles in each region of the tape retain the orientation imposed by the recording head's field when that region passed the head.

Playback head — essentially the same device as the recording head, operated in reverse. As the magnetized tape passes across the gap, the varying magnetic flux from the tape induces a varying current in the coil, which can be amplified and converted back to sound. Like a turntable stylus reading a vinyl groove, the playback head "reads" the magnetic pattern imprinted during recording and converts it back into an electrical signal.

Source: AES Historical — The History of Magnetic Recording https://www.aes-media.org/historical/html/recording.technology.history/magnetic4.html

The fidelity of the recording depends on how small and consistent the magnetic particles are, how precisely the tape speed is controlled, and how narrow the gap in the recording head is. Narrower gaps allow higher-frequency sounds to be recorded because they can magnetize shorter regions of tape. Faster tape speeds improve fidelity because a given frequency of sound is spread over more physical length of tape, making it easier to record and reproduce accurately.

Valdemar Poulsen and the Telegraphone (1898)

The first practical magnetic sound recorder was built by Valdemar Poulsen, a Danish telephone engineer working for the Copenhagen Telephone Company. In 1898, Poulsen filed a patent for a device he called the telegraphone — a machine that recorded sound on magnetized steel wire.

Valdemar Poulsen — Danish electrical engineer (1869–1942) who invented the telegraphone in 1898, creating the first successful magnetic recording device. His patent described recording on steel wire, steel ribbon, or a steel-coated disc, all using an electromagnet. Poulsen also invented the arc transmitter in 1902, an early method of generating continuous radio waves, which was a significant precursor to modern radio broadcasting.

The telegraphone worked on exactly the principle described above: speech vibrated a microphone, the resulting alternating current varied the magnetization of steel wire passing through the recording head, and the wire could later be rewound and played back through the same head acting as a microphone. The device was demonstrated publicly at the 1900 Paris World Exhibition, where Poulsen recorded a brief greeting from Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria. That recording — preserved to this day as the oldest known magnetic audio recording — is approximately 90 seconds long and remains audible, though degraded.

Source: Computer History Museum Storage Engine — 1935: Audio recorder uses low-cost magnetic tape https://www.computerhistory.org/storageengine/audio-recorder-uses-low-cost-magnetic-tape/

The telegraphone attracted commercial interest but never became commercially successful. Its sound quality was adequate for voice recording but poor for music: the steel wire could not be magnetized finely enough to capture high audio frequencies, and maintaining a consistent wire tension and speed was mechanically difficult. Steel wire was also expensive and could not be easily cut and spliced for editing. The device found niche use as a dictation machine and in some early telephone answering applications, but the broader promise of magnetic recording remained unrealized for another three decades.

Source: h2g2 — The History of Magnetic Recording https://h2g2.com/edited_entry/A3224936

Year	Milestone
1877	Thomas Edison patents the phonograph — mechanical recording on tinfoil cylinders
1898	Valdemar Poulsen patents the telegraphone; records on steel wire
1900	Poulsen demonstrates telegraphone at Paris Exhibition; records Emperor Franz Joseph I
1928	Fritz Pfleumer patents paper strips coated with iron powder as a recording medium
1932	AEG licenses Pfleumer's patent; begins Magnetophon development with BASF
Aug 1935	AEG Magnetophon K1 and BASF Type C tape debut at Berlin Radio Show
1940	Walter Weber and Hans-Joachim von Braunmühl discover high-frequency AC bias; audio quality transforms
1944	Herbert von Karajan uses Magnetophon to record himself conducting the Berlin Philharmonic
1945	Jack Mullin brings two Magnetophons to the United States as war surplus
May 1946	Mullin demonstrates Magnetophon quality to Institute of Radio Engineers; audience assumes live broadcast
1947	Bing Crosby hears Mullin's demonstration; immediately funds magnetic tape recording development
Apr 1948	Ampex ships first two Model 200A recorders to Mullin; used for Bing Crosby Show on ABC
1950	3M introduces Scotch No. 111 tape, co-developed with Mullin; professional-quality audio tape available
1956	Ampex demonstrates first video tape recorder (VTR), the VR-1000, at NAB convention
1963	Philips introduces the compact cassette
1979	Sony Walkman brings portable tape playback to mass market
1982	Sony introduces the Compact Disc; beginning of digital displacement of tape
1994	Masahiro Hara invents QR code for automotive parts — descendant of the same magnetic data storage logic
2005	Sony ceases Betamax tape production; professional video tape in rapid decline
2025	LTO (Linear Tape-Open) tape remains primary medium for large-scale data archival

Fritz Pfleumer and the Coated Tape (1928)

The critical material innovation that made practical magnetic recording possible was not steel wire but coated tape: a thin substrate with a layer of fine magnetic particles adhered to it. The person who worked this out was Fritz Pfleumer, a German-Austrian engineer who in 1928 received a German patent for paper strips coated with powdered iron oxide.

Fritz Pfleumer — German-Austrian engineer (1881–1945) who patented iron-oxide-coated paper tape as a magnetic recording medium in 1928. He licensed the patent to AEG (Allgemeine Elektricitäts-Gesellschaft), the German electrical company, which used it as the basis for the Magnetophon recording system.

Pfleumer's insight was that the recording medium did not need to be magnetically homogeneous (like steel wire). It could be a non-magnetic substrate carrying a thin, controlled layer of fine magnetic particles. The particles could be made smaller and more uniform than the grain of steel wire, allowing finer magnetization patterns and therefore higher-frequency audio recording. And the substrate could be made from inexpensive, flexible materials — initially paper, later cellulose acetate, later polyester.

AEG licensed Pfleumer's patent in 1932 and began an intensive development program in collaboration with BASF (Badische Anilin- und Soda-Fabrik), the German chemical company. BASF developed the tape itself — the coating formulation, the particle size, the binder chemistry, and the manufacturing process. AEG built the recorder. The result was the Magnetophon K1, demonstrated at the Berlin Radio Show in August 1935.

Source: Museum of Magnetic Sound Recording — Beginnings https://r2rtx.org/node/12

The Magnetophon K1 used a tape running at 77 cm/s (about 30 inches per second). It was a large machine, filling a substantial rack. Audio quality was adequate but not yet excellent — the high-frequency response was limited, and there was a characteristic hiss in the background. Fidelity had improved substantially over the telegraphone, but the Magnetophon K1 was not yet competitive with the best disc recording systems for music reproduction. That changed with the discovery of AC bias.

The AC Bias Discovery: The Moment Tape Became Real

The single most important technical advance in the history of magnetic recording — more important than Pfleumer's tape, more important than Poulsen's original invention — was the discovery of high-frequency AC bias recording by Walter Weber and Hans-Joachim von Braunmühl at the German broadcasting company RRG in 1940.

Before this discovery, magnetic recording used DC bias: a constant direct current was added to the signal current at the recording head. DC bias improved linearity compared to no-bias recording, but it caused significant harmonic distortion and generated a characteristic background hiss that degraded audio quality.

Weber and von Braunmühl discovered — apparently by accident, while investigating noise reduction — that adding a high-frequency alternating current (well above the audible range, typically 50–100 kHz) to the recording signal dramatically improved audio fidelity. The high-frequency AC bias "dithers" the magnetic particles, bringing them all to a common starting state as they enter the recording field, which reduces distortion and noise.

Source: dijifi.com — Unwinding the History of Reel-to-Reel Tape Recording https://www.dijifi.com/blog/unwinding-the-history-of-reel-to-reel-tape-recording/

AC bias — a high-frequency alternating current (typically 50–100 kHz) mixed with the audio signal before it reaches the recording head. The AC bias frequency is far above the range of human hearing and is therefore inaudible in playback. It improves the linearity of the magnetization process, reducing harmonic distortion by roughly 30–40 dB and lowering the noise floor significantly. AC bias is the single technical advance that made magnetic tape competitive with disc recording for broadcast-quality audio.

With AC bias incorporated into later Magnetophon models, German broadcasters achieved audio quality that was genuinely superior to anything available on disc. This is why Reichs-Rundfunk-Gesellschaft (RRG), the German national broadcaster, adopted the Magnetophon as its primary broadcast medium in the early 1940s. Conductors including Wilhelm Furtwängler and Herbert von Karajan made recordings using the system; Karajan specifically requested magnetic tape recording for his own productions because it allowed multiple takes without the cost of disc blanks, and because tape could be edited.

The AC bias discovery was classified as a military secret by the Nazi government. Allied radio engineers monitoring German broadcasts noticed that late-night orchestral programming seemed to be live — the quality was too good for disc playback — but could not identify what technology was being used. The mystery was not resolved until American Signal Corps engineers encountered captured Magnetophons at the Radio Frankfurt facilities in 1945.

Jack Mullin, Bing Crosby, and Ampex

US Army Signal Corps Major Jack Mullin was stationed in Germany in 1945 and tasked with investigating captured German electronics. He encountered Magnetophon machines at a captured German broadcast facility and immediately recognized their quality. He modified two machines for US electrical standards and brought them back to the United States as personal war trophies — along with approximately 50 reels of BASF recording tape.

Source: MixOnline — John T. Mullin: The Man Who Put Bing Crosby on Tape https://www.mixonline.com/recording/john-t-mullin-man-who-put-bing-crosby-tape-373927

In May 1946, Mullin demonstrated the Magnetophon to the Institute of Radio Engineers in Hollywood. He played back a tape recording without announcement. The audience, many of whom were professional recording engineers, assumed they were hearing a live broadcast. When Mullin revealed it was a tape playback, the demonstration created a sensation in the professional audio community.

Bing Crosby heard of the demonstration. Crosby at this time had a specific, commercially urgent problem: NBC required him to broadcast his radio show live rather than from disc recordings (which NBC considered to have inferior quality). Live broadcasting required Crosby to perform two separate shows for the East and West Coast time zones on the same day. Crosby preferred to pre-record his shows, which disc recording could not do at acceptable quality. Tape could.

Source: Engineering and Technology History Wiki — First-Hand: Bing Crosby and the Recording Revolution https://ethw.org/First-Hand:Bing_Crosby_and_the_Recording_Revolution

Crosby heard Mullin's tape demonstration and immediately grasped the commercial application. He hired Mullin and funded the development of a professional tape recorder with the Ampex Corporation, a small California electronics manufacturer founded by Alexander Poniatoff. (The company name derives from Poniatoff's initials — "AMP" — plus "EX" for "excellence.")

Ampex, working with Mullin's guidance and Crosby's funding, developed the Model 200: the first professional-grade magnetic tape recorder designed and manufactured in the United States. Ampex shipped the first two production units — serial numbers 1 and 2 — to Mullin in April 1948. Both machines were immediately put to work recording the Bing Crosby Show for ABC Radio.

Source: Sound & Vision — Flashback 1948: Ampex Unveils First Magnetic Tape Recorder https://www.soundandvision.com/content/flashback-1948-ampex-unveils-first-magnetic-tape-recorder

The Model 200 ran tape at 76.2 cm/s (30 inches per second) on 14-inch reels, offering frequency response of 50 Hz to 15,000 Hz at -3 dB — broadcast quality by the standards of the day. Crosby received 50% of Ampex's stock as part of the deal. When Ampex subsequently sold the Model 200 commercially to other radio networks and recording studios, Crosby's investment became extremely valuable.

Mullin simultaneously worked with Robert Herr and William Wetzel at 3M (Minnesota Mining and Manufacturing) to develop a US-manufactured tape to replace the dwindling supply of German BASF tape. The result was 3M Scotch Magnetic Tape No. 111, later refined into the No. 111A — the first American professional recording tape and the beginning of what became a large 3M business.

The Spread Across Audio, Video, and Data

The Model 200 and the tape it used defined the format for professional recording for roughly a decade. From 1948 through the early 1960s, virtually every major commercial recording and every radio broadcast in the United States was recorded on magnetic tape. The ability to edit tape — to physically cut it with a razor blade and splice it back together in a different order — transformed music production. Mistakes could be removed. Multiple takes of a passage could be compared and the best sections assembled. This was not possible with disc recording, which captured a performance in real time and could not be reassembled.

Source: MixOnline — 1948 Ampex Model 200A Tape Recorder https://www.mixonline.com/technology/1948-ampex-model-200a-tape-recorder-383587

The Beatles' recordings at Abbey Road in the 1960s, Pink Floyd's The Dark Side of the Moon (1973), and essentially every major commercial recording from 1948 to the 1980s was made on magnetic tape. The specific artifacts of tape recording — its warm frequency response, the subtle compression characteristics of analog saturation, the gentle high-frequency rolloff — became so embedded in the ears of listeners trained on recorded music that they are now replicated digitally by musicians seeking a "tape sound."

Magnetic tape saturation — the condition that occurs when the recording signal level is high enough to fully magnetize the tape particles, beyond which the magnetic response becomes nonlinear. In digital recording, clipping at saturation is harsh and distorted. In analog tape, saturation is gradual and produces a gentle compression of transients that many listeners perceive as pleasing warmth. This characteristic distortion is one reason analog tape recording remains in use for certain music production applications.

Ampex also invented video tape recording. In April 1956, Ampex engineers Charles Ginsburg and Ray Dolby (later famous for his noise reduction system) demonstrated the first practical video tape recorder, the Ampex VR-1000, at the National Association of Broadcasters convention. The challenge in video was that the signal bandwidth required — approximately 4 MHz for broadcast video, compared to 15 kHz for audio — required either a very fast tape speed (impractically fast) or a way to achieve high head-to-tape speed while keeping the tape itself moving slowly. Ginsburg's solution was the rotating head: the recording heads were mounted on a drum spinning at high speed across the tape, achieving the necessary high relative velocity with a manageable tape transport speed.

Source: richardhess.com — USA: A Selected History of Magnetic Recording (Engel-Hammar) https://richardhess.com/tape/history/Engel_Hammar--Magnetic_Tape_History.pdf

Rotating head — a recording or playback head mounted on a spinning drum, used to achieve high head-to-tape relative speed without requiring fast tape movement. In the Ampex VR-1000, four recording heads were mounted on a drum rotating at 14,400 rpm, sweeping across the tape in a direction roughly perpendicular to tape movement. This allowed video bandwidth recording with tape moving at 38 cm/s (15 inches per second). The same principle, later refined in the helical scan format, was used in all subsequent professional and consumer video cassette systems (VHS, Betamax, Video8, DV).

Magnetic tape also became the dominant data storage medium for computers. The first commercial computers — the IBM 701 (1952), the UNIVAC I (1951) — used magnetic tape as their primary storage medium. Tape's high storage capacity per unit cost and per unit volume made it practical for large data sets that would not fit in the expensive random-access core memory of the era. This role persists today: as of 2025, LTO (Linear Tape-Open) tape remains the dominant medium for data archival and backup at large scale, because its cost per terabyte is substantially lower than hard disk or flash storage, and recorded data has a shelf life of 30 or more years.

The Consumer Formats: From Reel to Cassette to Walkman

Professional tape recorders from 1948 through the 1970s used open reels of tape, which required threading by hand and were bulky. The consumer market needed something simpler. Philips, the Dutch electronics company, introduced the compact cassette in 1963 — a small plastic cartridge enclosing a reel of narrower tape on each side, pre-threaded and requiring only insertion into the machine. Cassette tape quality was lower than professional open-reel tape (narrower tape, slower speed, smaller magnetic particles), but it was adequate for casual listening and dramatically more convenient.

Source: Ampex Wikipedia entry https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ampex

The compact cassette dominated consumer audio recording through the 1970s and 1980s. Ray Dolby's noise reduction system (Dolby B, introduced in 1968; Dolby C, introduced in 1980) addressed the most significant audio quality limitation of consumer cassettes — the audible hiss from the relatively coarse magnetic particles in cassette tape — by encoding quiet signals at elevated levels during recording and decoding them at reduced levels during playback, reducing the noise floor by 10–15 dB.

Sony's Walkman, introduced in July 1979, made portable cassette playback a mass-market product. The Walkman created the category of personal audio — music accompanying an individual in public, during commuting, exercise, or work — that the iPod and smartphone later inherited. At its peak, Sony sold approximately 200 million Walkman units.

Video cassette formats — VHS (JVC, 1976) and Betamax (Sony, 1975) — brought video recording to the consumer home. The format war between VHS and Betamax, in which VHS achieved dominance despite Betamax's generally acknowledged technical superiority, became a case study in how product ecosystems, distribution networks, and recording duration (VHS initially offered 2 hours versus Betamax's 1 hour) can determine format competition outcomes independent of technical merit.

What People Get Wrong About Magnetic Tape

The dominant misconception is that digital recording immediately surpassed analog tape in all respects when the Compact Disc arrived in 1982. In certain respects — noise floor, dynamic range, freedom from wow and flutter, resistance to physical degradation — digital is clearly superior. In other respects, the comparison is more complicated. Analog tape's saturation behavior provides a gentle limiting of transients that many recording engineers find sonically useful. Some professional recording sessions in 2026 still begin on analog tape and are then transferred to digital for editing, specifically to obtain this characteristic.

A second misconception is that tape is obsolete as a storage medium. In consumer audio and video, it largely is. In data archival, it is not. LTO-9 tape (the current generation as of 2025) stores 18 TB of native data per cartridge at a cost substantially below any other storage medium per terabyte. Major cloud providers including Amazon Web Services, Google, and Meta use LTO tape for cold storage — data that is not accessed frequently but must be preserved reliably for years or decades.

A third misconception concerns the "warm sound" of analog tape, which is sometimes described as a psychoacoustic illusion. The physical characteristics that produce the warm sound — gentle high-frequency rolloff, even-order harmonic distortion from tape saturation, subtle compression of transients — are real, measurable acoustic differences from clean digital recording. Whether those differences are improvements or merely differences is a matter of preference; they are not imaginary.

What the Technology Left Behind

Magnetic tape was, for roughly 60 years, the medium through which humanity preserved its most important cultural artifacts: broadcast radio programs, music recordings, film sound, television broadcasts, and computer data. Most of that material still exists on tape. A significant fraction of it is at risk.

Magnetic tape from the 1960s and 1970s is subject to a degradation mechanism called "sticky shed syndrome" — a breakdown of the polyurethane binder that holds the magnetic particles to the tape substrate. Affected tape becomes tacky, causes the tape to shed its coating as it moves past the playback head, and can self-destruct during playback. Controlled heating ("baking" the tape at approximately 54°C for several hours) temporarily reconstitutes the binder and allows one or a few playbacks, during which the content can be transferred to digital. Many institutions holding historical recording archives are engaged in urgent transfer programs for exactly this reason.

Source: History of Recording — AMPEX Model 200/200A Tape Machine https://www.historyofrecording.com/AMPEX_Model_200.html

The magnetic tape recording story connects directly to every subsequent data storage technology: the principles of magnetic domain alignment, read-write head design, and medium formulation that Pfleumer, Weber, and Ginsburg developed underlie the hard disk drive (invented by IBM in 1956), the floppy disk (IBM, 1971), and even some aspects of solid-state storage design. The intellectual lineage from Poulsen's steel wire to a modern data center is unbroken.

FAQs

Q: Who invented magnetic tape recording?
A: The technology has multiple inventors at different stages. Valdemar Poulsen invented magnetic recording on steel wire with the telegraphone in 1898. Fritz Pfleumer invented iron-oxide-coated tape as a recording medium in 1928. AEG and BASF developed the practical Magnetophon tape recorder in 1935. Walter Weber and Hans-Joachim von Braunmühl discovered AC bias recording in 1940, which gave tape broadcast-quality fidelity. Jack Mullin brought German technology to the US, and Ampex's engineers (with Bing Crosby's funding) commercialized it as the Model 200 in 1948.

Q: Why was AC bias such an important discovery?
A: Before AC bias, magnetic recordings suffered from significant harmonic distortion and audible background hiss. Adding a high-frequency (50–100 kHz) alternating current to the recording signal alongside the audio signal reduced distortion by 30–40 dB and lowered the noise floor dramatically, bringing tape audio quality to or above the level of the best disc recording systems. It transformed the Magnetophon from a good voice recorder into a broadcast-quality music medium almost overnight.

Q: What was Bing Crosby's role in the history of magnetic tape?
A: Crosby was the commercial catalyst for American tape recording. He had a strong personal incentive — NBC required him to broadcast live rather than from disc, which meant performing each show twice. When he heard Mullin's Magnetophon demonstration in 1947, he immediately funded the development of a professional tape recorder at Ampex. His investment — financial, reputational, and commercial — launched the American recording tape industry and transformed professional audio production worldwide.

Q: When did magnetic tape enter the consumer market?
A: Open-reel consumer tape recorders became available in the early 1950s, but they required manual threading and were relatively expensive. The compact cassette, introduced by Philips in 1963, made tape accessible to casual listeners. The Sony Walkman (1979) created the market for portable personal audio. VHS and Betamax cassettes (1975–1976) brought home video recording to consumer markets.

Q: Is magnetic tape still used today?
A: Yes. LTO (Linear Tape-Open) tape is the dominant medium for large-scale data archival and backup storage in enterprise and cloud environments as of 2025. LTO-9 cartridges store 18 TB of native data at a cost per terabyte substantially below any other storage medium. Major technology companies use tape for cold storage of data that must be preserved but is rarely accessed. In audio, some professional recording engineers still use analog tape for its saturation characteristics, transferring to digital for editing.

Q: What is "sticky shed syndrome" in old magnetic tape?
A: Sticky shed syndrome is a degradation of the polyurethane binder used in magnetic tape from roughly the 1960s through the 1980s. The binder hydrolyzes over time, making the tape surface tacky. When played back, the tape sheds its magnetic coating onto the playback head, destroying the recording. Controlled heating (baking) of affected tapes temporarily restores the binder, allowing one or a few playbacks during which content can be digitized. Many recording archives are conducting emergency transfers of historical tapes for exactly this reason.

Q: How does magnetic tape relate to the hard disk drive?
A: The hard disk drive, invented by IBM engineers in 1956 as the IBM 350, uses the same fundamental technology as magnetic tape: a magnetic recording medium (the disk coating), a read/write head that magnetizes small domains of that coating to record data, and a playback head that detects the magnetization pattern to read data. The key difference is geometry — a spinning disk rather than a moving tape — and the use of random access (any location on the disk can be reached in milliseconds) rather than sequential access (tape must be wound to the right position). The material science, head design, and signal processing lineage is directly descended from tape recording research.

The Takeaway

Poulsen's steel wire in 1898 was too crude to be commercially useful. Pfleumer's coated tape in 1928 was the right medium applied to machines not yet sensitive enough to exploit it. Weber and von Braunmühl's AC bias discovery in 1940 was the catalyst that made the combination broadcast-worthy — and it happened inside a wartime Germany that classified the discovery as a military secret. Mullin and Crosby broke the secret's hold on the technology in 1947 and 1948, putting professional tape recording into American studios and radio networks within a year. From there, the technology propagated into every domain that needed to preserve sound, image, or data: music, broadcasting, cinema, computing, telecommunications. The magnetic medium is not gone — it is running server backups at data centers around the world, still the cheapest and most durable way to write a large quantity of data that will not be touched for years.

---

Read next:

• The Transistor: The Switch That Built the Modern World
• The Internet: How Packet Switching Connected the World
• Nikola Tesla: The Obsessive Genius Who Fell in Love With a Pigeon